Contents
1. Potential Forms of Verbs
2. Conditional なら
3. Coincidental ~し, ~し
4. Vてみる: V and Find Out
5. Duration and Dates
6. Appearance: ~そうだ
grammar Grammar Notes 15 Open in separate window
 
1
 Potential Forms of Verbs  

 

The potential form in Japanese verbs is utilized to indicate the capability or possibility of performing an action, and it is commonly translated into English as can V. The three classes of verbs (る-verbs, う-verbs, and irregular verbs) transform into their potential forms as shown below.

 RU-verb Potential Formation -Verbs: Drop and add られるFootnote 1
  たべる: たべ+られる ⇒ たべられる
  おきる: おき+られる ⇒ おきられる
  ねる: +られる ⇒ ねられる
 Footnote 1 Some Japanese use the alternate rule: Drop and add れる
resulting in shorter potential forms like たべれる, おきれる, and ねれる. 

 U-verb Potential Formation -Verbs: Change /i/ of a verb stem or /u/ of a plain form to /e/ and add  
  のみます (nomi-) or のむ (nomu) のめ (nome) + る ⇒ のめる
  かいます (kai-) or かう (kau) かえ (kae) + る ⇒ かえる
  いきます (iki-) or いく (iku) いけ (ike) + る ⇒ いける
  はなします (hanasi-) or はなす (hanasu) はなせ (hanase)+ る ⇒ はなせる 
  とります (tori-) or とる (toru) とれ (tore)+ る ⇒ とれる
  およぎます (oyogi-) or およぐ (oyogu) およげ (oyoge)+ る ⇒ およげる
  あそびます (asobi-) or あそぶ (asobu) あそべ (asobe)+ る ⇒ あそべる
  まちます (mati-) or まつ (matsu) まて (mate)+ る ⇒ まてる

 Irregular Verb Potential Formation Irregular Verbs:
  する ⇒ できる
  くる ⇒ こられる (or これる) 

Once verbs are changed to the potential forms, all of the potential verbs (regardless of the original verb types) conjugate as る-verbs as shown below.

  Irregular Verbs
-Verbs
-Verbs
-Verbs
-Verbs 
-Verbs 
 Nonpast affirmative できる おきられる よめる
 Nonpast negative できない おきられない よめない
 Past affirmative できた おきられた よめた
 Past negative できなかった おきられなかった よめなかった 
 V form できて おきられて よめて

The direct object makrer of the potential verb optionally changes to as shown below. This change is required for the verb できる as shown below.

日本ご はなす   speak Japanese
日本ご はなせる   can speak Japanese
日本ご はなせる
かんじ かく   write kanji
かんじ かける   can write kanji
かんじ かける
テニス する   play tennis
テニス できる   can play tennis
Ungrammaticalテニス できる   [ungrammatical]
The examples below indicate the subject's ability.

A: 山田さん、えいごはどう?
B: 少し はなせるけど。

A: スミスさん、なっとう食べられるのね。すごいわね。
B: なっとうは だいじょうぶだけど、うに食べられないんだ。

The following examples describe what is possible or allowed.

A: コンピュータを つかいたいんだけど、どこかに つかえるところ ないかな。
B: としょかんのコンピュータ・クラスターで つかえるよ。

A: ぼくの ともだちでも CRCおよげるの? テックの 学生じゃないけど。
B: さあ、わからないなあ。

In Japanese, the concept of self-controllability plays a pivotal role in determining whether certain verbs can be conjugated into their potential forms. This concept hinges on the degree of control a subject has over the action denoted by the verb. Specifically, verbs that describe actions or states beyond the subject's control cannot be converted into potential forms. For instance, the verb ある, meaning "to exist" or "to have," cannot be converted into a potential form as shown above. The existence or presence of something is not an action that a subject can control or influence, thus making the concept of potentiality inapplicable. Similarly, the verb わかる also does not have a potential form in standard usage. Understanding is often perceived as a spontaneous process or realization, not an action that one can decide to perform or not. A practical way to gauge the self-controllability of a verb is through the "self-controllability test." This involves attempting to use the verb in volitional forms such as "Let's [verb]!" or in negative requests like "Please don't [verb]!" If these constructions sound unnatural or infeasible, it indicates that the verb describes an action or state beyond direct control. For example, phrases like わかりましょう (Let's understand!) and わからないでください (Please don't understand!) are not viable in Japanese, underscoring that わかる is not a self-controllable verb and thus does not form a potential variant. This distinction underscores a nuanced aspect of Japanese verb usage, where the nature of the action—whether it's volitional or involuntary—significantly influences verb conjugation possibilities.

日本ごが わかります。→ Ungrammatical日本ごが わかられます[ungrammatical]

FYI: The verbs, 見る and 聞く have two potential forms. One group expresses what is available for the speaker to see and hear, that is, "visible," or "audible," and the other expresses the subject's ability (including privilege/permission) to see and hear.
  • ここから、富士山(ふじさん)見えます (visible)
  • こどもは R映画(えいが)見られません。でも、PG13見られるでしょう。(ability/permission to see)
  • しずかだから、(とり)こえ聞こえます (bird's chirping---audible)
  • (ふる)いカーステレオでは CD聞けますけど、mp3聞けませんね。 (ability to listen/hear)

 

2
 Conditional なら  

 

The connective なら expresses a condition stemming from a previous context: If it is the case that... Normally, a plain-form precedes なら except that the non-past copula is deleted before なら. This is marked by flagbelow. The past copula だった is not deleted.

    Plain Form なら 
  -Adj. いい
よくない
よかった
よくなかった
なら 
  -Adj. ゆうめいflag
ゆうめいじゃない
ゆうめいだった
ゆうめいじゃなかった
なら
  Noun きょうは雨flag
きょうは雨じゃない
きのうは雨だった
きのうは雨じゃなかった
なら
  Verb 来る
来ない
来た
来なかった
なら
Examples:
  • やすいなら買いますけど、高いなら買いません。
    If it is cheap, I will buy it. But, if it is expensive, I won't.

  • あした、ひまなら、いっしょにえいがを見に行きませんか。
    If you are not busy tomorrow, would you like to go to see a movie?

  • 午前9時から午後3時までなら (はたら)けます。
    If it's from 9 am to 3 pm, I can work.

  • きのうまで病気だったなら、今日しゅくだいを出さなくてもいいですよ。
    If it is the case that you were sick until yesterday, you don't have to turn in the homework today.

  • A: コンピュータを買いたいんです。
    B: コンピュータを買いたいなら、ノートパソコンがいいですよ。
    If you are going to buy a computer, a notebook computer is good.

  • A: 日本語のせいせきがわるかったんです。
    B: 日本語のせいせきがわるかったなら、オフィスアワーに来たほうがいいですよ。
    If your Japanese grade was bad, you should come to my office hours.

 

3
 Coincidental List Using ~し、~し  

 

The connective lists coincidental actions and states (no chronological sequence implied). It is primarily used in conversation (not used in formal text) and adds a sense of and what's more. In contrast, when て-form is used to connect actions of the same person, it usually implies chronological sequence: 朝おきて、はをみがいた (I woke up in the morning and (then) brushed my teeth. The connective normally takes the plain form.

  Plain Form し 
 -Adjective いい
よくない
よかった
よくなかった
し 
 -Adjective ゆうめいだ
ゆうめいじゃない
ゆうめいだった
ゆうめいじゃなかった
Noun きょうは雨だ
きょうは雨じゃない
きのうは雨だった
きのうは雨じゃなかった
Verb 来る
来ない
来た
来なかった
Examples:
  • ニューヨークではブロードウェーのショーも見たNBCスタジオにも行った
    びじゅつかんにも行きました。

    In New York, I saw Broadway show, (and what's more) I went to NBC Studio,
    (and what's more) I went to a museum. (I did all of that but not necessarily in that order.)


  • 弟はさかなが きらいだ、やさいも食べません。
    My younger brother dislikes fish, and (what's more) he does not eat vegetable, either.

  • 日本では、あきはばらに行きたい、ふじさんにものぼりたいです。
    In Japan, I want to go to Akihabara, and (what's more) I want to climb Mt. Fuji.
The connective is often used to list a series of coincidental facts followed by a conclusion.

ニューヨークでは
ブロードウェーのショーも見た、びじゅつかんにも行った楽しかったです

            coincidental facts           conclusion
In New York, I saw Broadway show, (and what's more) I went to a museum, and it was fun.

 

今日はさむい、雨もふっているあまり出かけたくない
      coincidental facts       conclusion
It is cold and is also raining today, and I don't want to go out very much.

The second sentence above implies that the fact that it is cold today and is raining could be the reason for not wanting to go out. If you replace the last with から, the reason becomes more explicit and direct.

今日はさむい、雨もふっているから、あまり出かけたくない。
      reasons/causes        result/effect
It is cold and is also raining today, and so (that's why) I don't want to go out very much.

4
 Vてみる: V and Find Out 

 

The form Vてみる literally means V and see or find out (what it's like).

  V みる    
  食べて みる   eat it to find out (what it's like); try to eat it
  やって or して みる   do it to find out (what it's like); try to do it
  きて みる   wear it to find out (what it's like); try [clothes] on 
  つかって みる   use it to find out (what it's like); try to use it
  見て みる   look at it to find out (what it's like); try to look
Vてみる is often translated as try to V, but there is a difference between the Japanese Vてみる and try to V. Vてみる implies an initiation of V-ing, but trying to V does not. For example, 電話してみる implies that you have at least initiated the action of making a phone call but you did not complete that action for some reason. In contrast, to try to call in English does not always imply that you have initiated the action since you can say I tried to call you, but I was too busy to do so. In contrast, 電話してみたけど、いそがしくてできませんでした (I called you to see [if you would answer] but I was too busy to do so???) is a contradiction in Japanese. More examples follow:
  1. てんぷらをつくってみた。
    I cooked tempura (to see how it would turn out).

  2. 日本に行ってみたい。
    I want to go to Japan (to see what it's like).

  3. 先生に話してみましょう。
    Let's talk to the teacher (to see what he/she says).

  4. この薬を飲んでみたほうがいいですよ。
    You should try this medicine.

  5. わしょくだから、はしを使ってみませんか。
    Since it's Japanese food, why don't use chopsticks?
How do you say the following in Japanese?
  1. I wanted to take a Japanese bath.
  2. I tried to wear a kimono, but I couldn't get it right.
  3. Would you like to have a cup of green tea?
  4. May I try these shoes on?

 

5
 Duration and Dates ((ねん)(がつ)(にち/か))  

 

In Lesson 6A, we learned the calendar expressions as shown below. flag marks exceptions.

 

The number of days and dates
calendar いちにち
ついたちflag
一日 1 day
1st of the month
ふつかflag 二日 2 days; 2nd
みっかflag 三日 3 days; 3rd
よっかflag 四日 4 days; 4th
いつかflag 五日 5 days; 5th
むいかflag 六日 6 days; 6th
なのかflag 七日 7 days; 7th
ようかflag 八日 8 days; 8th
ここのかflag 九日 9 days; 9th
とおかflag 十日 10 days; 10th
じゅういちにち 十一日 11 days; 11th にじゅういちにち 二十一日 21 days; 21st
じゅうににち 十二日 12 days; 12th にじゅうににち 二十二日 22 days; 22nd
じゅうさんにち 十三日 13 days; 13th にじゅうさんにち 二十三日 23 days; 23rd
じゅうよっかflag 十四日 14 days; 14th にじゅうよっかflag 二十四日 24 days; 24th
じゅうごにち 十五日 15 days; 15th にじゅうごにち 二十五日 25 days; 25th
じゅうろくにち 十六日 16 days; 16th にじゅうろくにち 二十六日 26 days; 26th
じゅうしちにち 十七日 17 days; 17th にじゅうしちにち 二十七日 27 days; 27th
じゅうはちにち 十八日 18 days; 18th にじゅうはちにち 二十八日 27 days; 28th
じゅうくにち 十九日 19 days; 19th にじゅうくにち 二十九日 29 days; 29th
はつかflag 二十日 20 days; 20th さんじゅうにち 三十日 30 days; 30th
      さんじゅういちにち 三十一日 31 days; 31st
      なんにち 何日 How many days;
what date?

 

We now add the length of time in months. This is counted by the ~かげつ counter.

Months (Written as ~ヶ月 or ~か月)
  いちがつ
いっかげつflag
一月
一か月
January
one month
  しちがつ
ななかげつ
七月
七か月
July
seven months
  にがつ
にかげつ
二月
二か月
February
two months
  はちがつ
はちかげつ
or はっかげつflag
八月
八か月
August
eight months
  さんがつ
さんかげつ
三月
三か月
March
three months
  くがつ
きゅうかげつ
九月
九か月
September
nine months
  しがつ
よんかげつ
四月
四か月
April
four months
  じゅうがつ
じゅっかげつflag
十月
十か月
October
ten months
  ごがつ
ごかげつ
五月
五か月
May
five months
  じゅういちがつ
じゅういっかげつflag
十一月
十一か月
November
eleven months
  ろくがつ
ろっかげつflag
六月
六か月
June
six months
  じゅうにがつ
じゅうにかげつ
十二月
十二か月
December
twelve months
          なんがつ
なんかげつ
何月
何か月
What month?
How many months? 

 

The ねん counter is used to refer to the exact year as well as the length of years. The counter 年間(ねんかん) only refers the length of years.

 

  いちねん 一年 1 year; 1st year   いちねんかん 一年間 1 year
  にねん 二年 2 years; 2nd year   にねんかん 二年間 2 years
  さんねん 三年 3 years; 3rd year   さんねんかん 三年間 3 years
  よねんflag 四年 4 years; 4th year   よねんかんflag 四年間 4 years
  ごねん 五年 5 years; 5th year   ごねんかん 五年間 5 years
  ろくねん 六年 6 years; 6th year   ろくねんかん 六年間 6 years
  しちねん
or ななねん
七年 7 years; 7th year   しちねんかん
or ななねんかん
七年間 7 years
  はちねん 八年 8 years; 8th year   はちねんかん 八年間 8 years
  きゅうねん
or くねん
九年 9 years; 9th year   きゅうねんかん
or くねんかん
九年間 9 years
  じゅうねん 十年 10 years; 10th year   じゅうねんかん 十年間 10 years
  なんねん 何年 how many years?
what date?
  なんねんかん 何年間 How many years?

 

If the particle follows, 何日 and 何年 are questions about the exact time---what date and what year, respectively. If no particle follows them, they are questions on length of time---how many days and how many years, respectively.

  • A: 何日行きましたか。 On what date did you go?
    B: 三日行きました。 I went there on the third of the month.

  • A: 何日行っていますか。 How many days have you been going there?
    B: 三日行っています。 I have been going there for three days.

  • A: 何年行きましたか。 In what year did you go?
    B: 2003行きました。 I went there in 2003.

  • A: 何年行っていますか。 How many years have you been going there?
    B: 三年行っています。 I have been going there for three years.

The complete dates are said in the order of larger to smaller units (~年 ~月 ~日. There are two ways to count calendar years in Japanese---the Western style and the Japanese style. The Western-style years are referred to by simply reading the number as a whole number and add . We never divide the year expressions into two parts like you do in English (e.g., 1996 = nineteen ninety-six).

  • 1996年   せん きゅうひゃく きゅうじゅうろく ねん
  • 2011年   にせん じゅういち ねん

To count calendar years in the Japanese-style, we use the designation for each "era". The era designation changes each time a new emperor is installed. The current emperor was installed in 1989 and the era designation was changed from 昭和(しょうわ) to 平成(へいせい) in that year. As a result, 1989 is 平成1年. Here are the recent eras in Japan.

  • 明治(めいじ): 明治1年~明治45  (9/8/1868 - 7/30/1912)
  • 大正(たいしょう): 大正1年~大正15  (7/30/1912 - 12/15/1926)
  • 昭和(しょうわ): 昭和1年~昭和64  (12/15/1926 - 1/7/1989)
  • 平成(へいせい): 平成1年~げんざい  (1/7/1989 - the present)

Nowadays, most statistics are written in the Western-style calendar.

  Heisei   Western   Heisei   Western
  平成(へいせい)1   1989   平成12   2000
  平成11   1999   平成22   2010
 Heisei to Western Converter:
平成 = 1989
 Western to Heisei Converter:
= 平成 1

 

 

6
  ~そうだ: Inferences Based on Appearance  

 

This pattern expresses the speaker's conjecture or inference based on what he sees or hears. It often translates as "looks like/sounds like" or "appears." The stems are obtained as follows:

How to obtain the stem
 -Adj drop あつ an arrow going right あつ
たか an arrow going right たか
食べた an arrow going right 食べた
 -Adj drop げんきan arrow going right げんき
しずか an arrow going right しずか
 Verb drop ます ふります (it rains) an arrow going right ふり 
よめます
(can read) an arrow going right よめ
ます
(someone is located/stays)an arrow going right  

The following table shows this pattern with three possible predicate types in affirmative forms.

Affirmative + そうだ (appears X)                 
 
 あつい あつそうだ It looks hot.
 気分がわるい  気分がわるそうだ  It looks he is feeling sick.
 むずかしい むずかしそうだ It looks difficult.
 食べたい 食べたそうだった She looked she wanted to eat it.
sick
 げんきだ げんきそうだ He/She looks healthy.
 にぎやかだ にぎやかそうだ It looks cheerfully noisy.
 べんりだ べんりそうだ It looks convenient.
 ひまだ ひまそうだった He/She looked idle/not-busy.
 ある ありそうだ It looks like there is...
 ふる  ふりそうだ It looks like it's going to rain.
 読める 読めそうだった It looked like I could read it.
 高くなる  高くなりそうだ It looks like it'll be expensive.
cloudy
This pattern does not work for nouns.

The corresponding negative そうだ forms requires an extra sound between the stem ~な and そうだ. The Vなさそうだ has an alternate appearance pattern Vそうにない which is a stronger form of negation than Vなさそうだ.

Negative + +そうだ (appears not X) V + そうにない
(does not appear to V whatsoever)
 あつくない あつくなそうだ
It does not look hot.
n/a
 しずかじゃない  しずかじゃなそうだ
It does not look quiet.
n/a
 ふらない ふらなそうだ
It looks like it's not going to rain. 
ふりそうない
It does not look like it's going to rain. 
 ない そうだ
It looks like there isn't.
ありそうない
It does not look like there is...

The adjective いい also requires between the stem and そうだ.

いい becomes そうだ (not いさそうだ   appears good
よくない becomes よくなそうだ (not いくなさそうだ   appears not good
does not appear good

The stem+そうだ phrase itself behaves like a な-adjective, so when it appears before a noun, it changes to そうな.

 Stem + そうな Noun     an expensive-looking fur coat
 たかそうな ふく   expensive-looking clothes
 こわそうな 先生   scary-looking teacher
 げんきそうな こども   healthy-looking child
 雨がふりそうな 天気   weather that looks like it's going to rain
(Lit. It-is-going-to-rain weather)

When the stem+そうだ phrase modifies a predicate, it changes to そうに, just like a な-adjective. The phrase そうに creates a sense of "as if..."

 Stem + そうに Predicate     a little girl who is showing the sign of wanting to eat icecream.
 さむそうに している   looking like he/she is cold
is acting as if he/she is cold
 たのしそうに はなす   speak as if he/she is happy
 食べたそうに 見ている   is looking at it as if she wants to eat it

 
 
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