Grammar Notes 19

To identify the source of the information, use Nによると, meaning “according to N.”

• 山口先生によると、日本には「ガラパゴス」というけいたい電話があったそうだ。
  According to Professor Yamaguchi, there used to be cell phones called “Galapagos” in Japan.
• 新聞によると、大きいたいふうが日本に来ているそうです。
  According to the newspaper, a large typhoon is approaching Japan.

Source によると、

reported information

そうです

Do not confuse this hearsay pattern with the appearance …そうです (“looks/seems ...”) introduced in Lesson 15. Although both use そうです, they have different meanings and, importantly, attach to different forms.

1. い-adjectives

2. Verbs

3. な-adjectives

4. Nouns

The Key Difference

• スミスさんはNYに行ったそうです。
  I hear that Ms. Smith went to New York.
• スミスさんはNYに行ったって。
  I hear Ms. Smith went to New York.

The second sentence is appropriate in casual conversation with friends, family members, and others with whom informal speech is appropriate.

1. すうがくは むずかしいって。
   I hear that math is difficult.

2. スミスさんは NYに行ったって。
   I hear that Ms. Smith went to New York.
3. 大きい町じゃなかったって。
   I hear that it wasn't a big town.

With nouns and な-adjectives, だ appears in the non-past affirmative plain form:

4. ゆうめいな歌手(かしゅ)だって。
   I hear she's a famous singer.

• ゆうめいな歌手 + だ + って

• 田中さんは来ないって言ってた。
  Tanaka said that he isn't coming.

When the source or context is already understood, 言ってた can be omitted:

• 田中さんは来ないって。
  I hear Tanaka isn't coming. / Tanaka says he isn't coming.

Thus, sentence-final って often has the conversational sense of:

• “I heard that ...”

• “They say that ...”
• “Someone said that ...”

The information being reported can itself contain the explanatory form …んだ:

5. ゆうめいな歌手なんだって。
   I hear she's a famous singer.

The んだ belongs to the information being reported. It adds the explanatory/background nuance that we learned previously. Similarly:

6. ゆうめいな歌手だったんだって。
   I hear she was a famous singer.

The difference between だって and なんだって is therefore the same basic difference as between だ and なんだ:

• ゆうめいな歌手だ。 She's a famous singer.
• → ゆうめいな歌手だって。 I hear she's a famous singer.
• ゆうめいな歌手なんだ。 She's a famous singer.
  [explanatory/background information]
• → ゆうめいな歌手なんだって。 I hear she's a famous singer.
  [reporting that explanatory/background information]

The exact English translation of んだ depends on the context, so it does not always need to be translated explicitly.

• 田中さんは来ないそうです。
  I hear that Tanaka isn't coming.
• 田中さんは来ないって。
  I hear Tanaka isn't coming.

	…そうです	…って
Function	hearsay/report	hearsay/casual report
Style	neutral/polite	casual/conversational
Typical context	general conversation, more formal situations	conversation with friends, family, peers
Source	may be stated with …によると	usually understood from context

This “A before B” relationship is especially important when A and B are events. When A describes a state or condition, however, it does not need to be “completed” before B:

• さむかったら、コートを着ます。
  If it's cold, I'll wear a coat.
• お金持(かねも)ちだったら、大きい家に住(す)みたい。
  If I were rich, I'd like to live in a big house.

• たろうくんが学校に行ったら、だれもいませんでした。
  When Taro got to school, no one was there.

• Taro got to school → he found that no one was there

• まどをあけたら、雪(ゆき)がふっていました。
  When I opened the window, I saw that it was snowing.
• 家に帰ったら、友だちが来ていました。
  When I got home, I found that my friend was there.
• 店に行ったら、もうしまっていました。
  When I got to the store, it was already closed.

• たろうくんが学校に行った時、だれもいませんでした。
  When Taro went/got to school, no one was there.

• たろうくんが学校に行ったら、だれもいませんでした。
  When Taro got to school, he found that no one was there.

• △ たろうくんが学校に行ったら、勉強しました。
  (intended: When Taro got to school, he studied.)

• たろうくんが学校に行った時、勉強しました。
  When Taro went to school, he studied.

• 家に帰ったら、電話します。
  When I get home, I'll call.
• 家に帰ったら、電話してください。
  When you get home, please call.
• 家に帰ったら、いっしょに食べましょう。
  When we get home, let's eat together.

• きのう学校に行ったら、田中さんに会えたでしょう。
  If I had gone to school yesterday, I probably could have seen Tanaka.

• Once/if condition A is realized, B follows or applies.

• When A happens, B ...
• If A happens, B ...
• When A happened, B was/followed ...
• If A had happened, B would have ...

When A and B are events, remember that …たら normally establishes A before B. When A is a state or condition, A provides the circumstances under which B applies.

• くつをぬがなくてもいいです。
  You don't have to take off your shoes.
  (Lit. It is okay even if you don't take off your shoes.)

Here, taking off your shoes is not necessary. You may take them off, but you do not have to.

• きれいじゃなくてもいいです。
  It doesn't have to be clean. (Lit. It is okay even if it isn't clean.)

• あたらしくなくてもいいです。
  It doesn't have to be new.
  (Lit. It is okay even if it isn't new.)

• くつをぬいでもいいです。
  You may take off your shoes. → Taking them off is permitted.

• くつをぬがなくてもいいです。
  You don't have to take off your shoes. → Taking them off is not necessary.

The negative form …なくてもいい does not mean “You must not ....” It means that doing something is optional rather than required. Compare:

• くつをぬがなくてもいいです。
  You don't have to take off your shoes.
• くつをぬいではいけません。
  You must not take off your shoes.

These two sentences are very different: …なくてもいい expresses lack of necessity, while …てはいけない expresses prohibition.

• きのう雨がふったみたいです。
  It looks like it rained yesterday.

The speaker obviously cannot see yesterday's rain happening now. Perhaps the streets are wet, people are carrying wet umbrellas, or the speaker has some other evidence. From that evidence, the speaker concludes that it probably rained. Similarly:

• 田中さんはりこんしたみたいです。
  It seems that Mr. Tanaka got divorced.

Do not confuse …みたいです with the appearance pattern …そうです that we learned earlier.

Appearance …そうです usually expresses an immediate impression based on how something looks:

• このケーキはおいしそうです。
  This cake looks delicious.
  
  

The speaker looks at the cake and gets the impression that it will taste good. …みたいです, on the other hand, expresses a broader inference based on available evidence:

• このケーキはおいしいみたいです。
  It seems that this cake is delicious.

Perhaps everyone who tries the cake says that it is good, or people keep coming back for more. The speaker uses such information as evidence for the conclusion. Compare:

• おいしそうです。
  It looks delicious. → an immediate impression from its appearance
• おいしいみたいです。
  It seems to be delicious. → a conclusion based on available evidence

The two patterns also differ grammatically:

• おいしそうです → adjective stem + そうです
• おいしいみたいです → complete plain-form adjective + みたいです

With verbs:

• 雨がふりそうです。
  It looks like it's going to rain.
  → The sky looks threatening.
• 雨がふるみたいです。
  It seems that it's going to rain.
  → There is some evidence or information suggesting that it will rain.

• あの女の子は男の子みたいです。
  That girl looks/is like a boy.
• この雲(くも)は犬(いぬ)みたいです。
  This cloud looks like a dog.
• このロボットは人間みたいです。
  This robot is like a human.

• 男の子みたいな女の子: a girl who looks/is like a boy
• ホテルみたいな家: a house that looks like a hotel

• 子どもみたいにわらう: laugh like a child

• Nみたいです: is/seems like N
• Nみたいな + noun: a noun that is like N
• Nみたいに + verb: do something like N

• ひげをそる前に、はをみがきます。
  I brush my teeth before I shave.
  The order of events is: brush teeth (S2) → shave (S1)

• おちゃを入(い)れる前に、おゆをわかしました。
  I boiled water before I made tea.
  The order is: boil water (S2) → make tea (S1)

Notice that 入れる remains in the non-past form even though the main verb わかしました is in the past. This is because the tense of the whole sentence is primarily determined by the main predicate (S2). The verb before 前に indicates its timing relative to S2. At the time S2 happens, S1 has not yet happened.　Compare:

• 日本に行く前に、カメラを買います。
  I will buy a camera before I go to Japan.
• 日本に行く前に、カメラを買いました。
  I bought a camera before I went to Japan.

• Vて + から、S2
  After doing S1, S2. / Once S1 is done, S2.

• はをみがいてから、かおをあらいます。
  I wash my face after I brush my teeth.
  The order is: brush teeth (S1) → wash face (S2)
• 日本に行ってから、カメラを買いました。
  I bought a camera after I went to Japan.
  The order is: go to Japan (S1) → buy a camera (S2)

• 日本に行く前に、カメラを買いました。
  I bought a camera before I went to Japan.
• 日本に行ってから、カメラを買いました。
  I bought a camera after I went to Japan.

• しゅくだいをしてから、ゲームをします。
  I'll play games after I do my homework.
  / I'll do my homework first, and then play games.

Pattern	Meaning	Order
Vる前に、S2	before doing V, S2	S2 → V
Vてから、S2	after doing V, S2	V → S2

• ごはんを食べる前に、手をあらいます。
  I wash my hands before I eat.
• ごはんを食べてから、はをみがきます。
  I brush my teeth after I eat.

• はをみがいてから、ねました。
  I went to bed after brushing my teeth.

• はをみがいたから、おかしは食べません。
  Because I brushed my teeth, I won't eat snacks.

• みがいて + から → after brushing
  
• みがいた + から → because (I) brushed