ぶんぽう (Grammar)

Passive sentences use the passive form of a verb. The passive form can be derived from the dictionary form as follows:

(a) る-verbs:

(b) う-verbs:

Drop the final hiragana character of the dictionary form (e.g., かく → か＿) and add the hiragana at the top of the same column (e.g., か → かか) in the hiragana table, and then add れる (かか → かかれる). If the dictionary form ends in hiragana う, drop う (いう → い＿), add わ (い→ いわ), and then add れる (いわ → いわれる).

行く　→　行かれる 持つ　→　持たれる 読む　→　読まれる 言う　→　言われる あそぶ　→　あそばれる

話す　→　話される 死ぬ　→　死なれる 帰る　→　帰られる 泳ぐ　→　泳がれる

(c) Irregular verbs:

Japanese passive sentences can generally be divided into two types: (a) direct passive and (b) indirect passive. The indirect passive is also called the affective passive.

(a) Direct Passive

(b) Indirect Passive (or Affective Passive)

When transitive-intransitive verb pairs were introduced in Lesson 20, we learned that the ～ている pattern with certain intransitive verbs can describe a state resulting from a change expressed by the verb.

• まどは今、開(あ)いています。
  The window is open now.
• エアコンがついています。
  The air conditioner is on.

Under ordinary circumstances, these sentences do not mean that the window is in the process of opening or that the air conditioner is in the process of turning on. Instead, they describe the current state resulting from a change: the window is open, and the air conditioner is on. In this lesson, we will learn that a similar resulting state can be expressed with a transitive verb by using the pattern Vて + ある.

• まどは今、開けてあります。
  (Someone opened the window intentionally, and) it is open now.
• エアコンがつけてあります。
  (Someone turned on the air conditioner intentionally, and) it is on now.

Although both transitive Vて + ある and intransitive Vて + いる can describe the current state of something, there is an important difference in meaning. The ～てある pattern implies that someone intentionally performed an action that brought about the current state, usually for some purpose. In contrast, ～ている simply describes the resulting state without indicating whether the change was brought about intentionally. Compare:

• まどが開いています。 The window is open.
  → describes its current state
• まどが開けてあります。 The window has been left open (intentionally).
  → describes its current state while implying that someone opened it intentionally

Note also that ～てある focuses on the current state of the object rather than on the person who performed the action. Therefore, the object is usually marked by が (or presented as the topic with は), rather than by を. Compare the following sentences:

• ホテルを予約(よやく)しておきました。 I made a hotel reservation in advance.
• ホテルが（or は）予約してあります。 The hotel has been reserved.

The first sentence, ホテルを予約しておきました, describes an action performed in preparation for a future purpose: the speaker made the reservation in advance. In contrast, ホテルが（or は）予約してあります focuses on the current state: the hotel has already been reserved, with the implication that someone made the reservation intentionally for a particular purpose.

The /V1ている間(あいだ)に + V2/ pattern indicates that the action or change expressed by V2 occurs at some point during the period in which the activity expressed by V1 is taking place (or the resulting state expressed by V1 exists).

• 私はルームメートが買い物に行っている間にアパートをそうじしました。
  I cleaned the apartment while my roommate was out shopping.
• ねている間にじしんがあったそうです。
  I heard that there was an earthquake while I was sleeping.

In contrast, the /V1ている間 + V2/ pattern indicates that the action, activity, or state expressed by V2 continues throughout, or characterizes, the period in which V1 is taking place (or its resulting state exists).

• 私はルームメートがテレビを見ている間、ずっと本を読んでいました。
  I was reading a book the whole time my roommate was watching TV.
• 両親が出かけている間、ずっとねていました。
  I was sleeping the whole time my parents were out.

Thus, the basic distinction can be summarized as follows:

• ～間に → something occurs at some point during a period
• ～間 → something continues or occurs throughout a period

Instead of Vている, an existence verb or a noun referring to a period of time, activity, or event can also occur before 間 or 間に.

• ニューヨークにいる間にミュージカルを見に行きたいと思っています。
  I want to go see a musical while I’m in New York.
• 留守(るす)の間に山下さんから電話があったそうです。
  I heard that Mr./Ms. Yamashita called while I was out.
• アメリカにいる間、いつも英語で話していました。
  I always spoke English while I was in the U.S.
• 夏休(なつやす)みの間、毎日アルバイトをしていました。
  I worked part-time every day during summer vacation.

In Lesson 20, we learned that /V1ながら V2/ can also be used to express two actions occurring at the same time. Although both ～間(に)… and ～ながら… can correspond to English "while," there are important differences between them. First, with /V1ながら V2/, the two actions must be performed by the same person. With /V1ている間(に) V2/, however, the subjects of the two clauses may be different.

• 私はよく音楽を聞きながら勉強(べんきょう)します。
  I often study while listening to music.
• 私は田中さんがまんがを読んでいる間に日本語の宿題(xxしゅくだいx)をしました。
  I did my Japanese homework while Mr./Ms. Tanaka was reading a comic book.
• 私はミラーさんが宿題をしている間、ずっと本を読んでいました。
  I was reading a book the whole time Mr./Ms. Miller was doing homework.

Second, ～ながら describes two actions in which the same person is simultaneously engaged. With ～間(に), the two situations need only overlap in time; they do not have to be actions that the person is actively performing at the same moment. For example, one activity may create a period of time during which another activity takes place.

• 私はせんたくをしている間に部屋(へや)をそうじしました。
  I cleaned my room while doing the laundry.

Here, doing the laundry establishes a period of time during which the speaker can do something else; the speaker does not have to be continuously engaged with the laundry throughout that period. By contrast, ～ながら requires two actions that can actually be performed simultaneously:

• 私は手をあらいながら部屋をそうじしました。 [Unacceptable]
  I cleaned my room while washing my hands.

The two actions cannot normally be performed simultaneously.

In Lesson 16, we learned that Xがほしい is used to express the first person’s desire for an object X or to ask about the second person’s desire, while Xをほしがっている is used to describe a third person’s desire for X. Similarly, we learned in Lesson 13 that /V-stem + たい/ is used to express the first person’s desire to do something or to ask about the second person’s desire, while /V-stem + たがっている/ is used to describe a third person’s desire to engage in an activity. In this lesson, we will learn how to express a desire for someone else to do something. This is expressed with the pattern /Vて + ほしい/. The person whom you want to perform the action is marked by the particle に.

• ルームメートに時々アパートをそうじしてほしいです。
  I want my roommate to clean our apartment from time to time.

To express a desire for someone not to do something, either /Vて + ほしくない/ or /Vないで + ほしい/ can be used. There is a subtle difference between the two. /Vて + ほしくない/ expresses the speaker’s desire or preference that someone not do something, while /Vないで + ほしい/ more directly expresses a desire for the person to refrain from doing it. Thus, /Vないで + ほしい/ can sound like a stronger request.

• 友だちに夜おそく私に電話してほしくありません。
  I don’t want my friends to call me late at night.
• 私は母に私がいない時に私の部屋に入らないでほしいです。
  I want my mother not to enter my room when I’m not there.

The patterns /Vて + ほしい/, /Vて + ほしくない/, and /Vないで + ほしい/ express the speaker’s desire relatively directly. Similar meanings can be expressed with /Vて + もらいたい/, /Vて + もらいたくない/, and /Vないで + もらいたい/. The ～てもらいたい patterns present the desired action as something the speaker would like to receive from the other person as a favor and therefore tend to sound somewhat more indirect than the corresponding ～てほしい patterns.

In Lesson 10, we learned how to describe changes of state using …なる. The form that comes before なる depends on how the resulting state is expressed.
(1) When the resulting state is described by an い-adjective, use /い-Adjく + なる/.

• この店のコーヒーは高くなりました。
  The coffee at this shop became more expensive.
  

(2) When the resulting state is described by a な-adjective, use /な-Adjに + なる/.

• 田中さんの部屋(へや)はきれいになりました。
  Tanaka’s room became clean.
  

(3) When the resulting state is described by a noun, use /Nに + なる/.

• この店のコーヒーは350円になりました。
  The coffee at this shop became 350 yen.
  

The …なる patterns above describe a change that occurs: something becomes a certain way. In this lesson, we will learn how to describe causing a change in something (X). To express this meaning, …する is used instead of …なる. The thing that is changed (X) is normally marked by を. As with …なる, the form that comes before する depends on how the resulting state is expressed.
(1) When the resulting state is described by an い-adjective, use /Xを + い-Adjく + する/.

• この店はコーヒーを高くしました。
  The shop made its coffee more expensive.
  

(2) When the resulting state is described by a な-adjective, use /Xを + な-Adjに + する/.

• 田中さんは部屋をきれいにしました。
  Tanaka made his room clean. (Naturally: Tanaka cleaned his room.)

(3) When the resulting state is described by a noun, use /Xを + Nに + する/.

• この店はコーヒーを350円にしました。
  The shop changed the price of its coffee to 350 yen.
  

Thus, ～なる and ～する can describe the same type of change from two different perspectives. ～なる focuses on the thing that undergoes the change, whereas ～する focuses on someone or something that causes the change. Compare:

• この店のコーヒーは350円になりました。
  The coffee at this shop became 350 yen.
• この店はコーヒーを350円にしました。
  The shop changed the price of its coffee to 350 yen.

The same contrast can be seen with adjectives:

• 部屋がきれいになりました。
  The room became clean.
• 田中さんは部屋をきれいにしました。
  Tanaka made the room clean.

In short: Xが／は ～なる → X becomes a certain way. Xを ～する → Someone makes/changes X to a certain state.

The pattern /Vように + 言う/ is used to report an instruction or request for someone to do (or not do) something. The person receiving the instruction or request is marked by に.

	Personに	Vように	言う
先生は	学生に	もっと勉強するように	言いました。
The teacher told the students to study more.

For a negative instruction or request, use Vないように言う.

	Personに	Vないように	言う
母は	子どもに	おそくならないように	言いました。
The mother told her child not to come home late.

In the conversation, Lisa considers directly asking her neighbors to be quiet:

• しずかにしてほしいって言いに行ったほうがいいと思う？
  Do you think I should go over and ask them to be quiet?

Kaoru instead suggests asking the landlord to convey the request. This idea could also be expressed using ～ように言う:

• 大家(おおや)さんに、となりの部屋の人にもう少ししずかにするように言ってもらう。
  You ask the landlord to tell the people next door to be a little quieter.

Note that ～ように言う does not necessarily mean a forceful “tell.” Depending on the context, it can be translated as “tell,” “ask,” “instruct,” or “advise.”