ぶんぽう (Grammar) |
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We learned the Vて form in Lesson 9. The pattern Vて + います can describe an action in progress or an action that occurs regularly or repeatedly. Depending on the verb and context, it is often translated as “be V-ing” or by the simple present tense in English. The following table shows the conjugation of Vています.
1. Actions in progressMore examples are shown below. Be careful with the verbs つとめる and はたらく. They take different particles に or で.
2. Regular or repeated actionsVています can also describe actions that occur regularly or repeatedly. In this use, English often uses the simple present tense rather than be V-ing.
Note: Be careful with つとめる and はたらく. When referring to a workplace, つとめる normally takes に, while はたらく takes で:
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As you already know, Japanese sentences do not always require an explicit subject such as わたし or ぼく. When the subject is clear from the context, it is usually omitted. For this reason, personal pronouns are used less frequently in Japanese than their English equivalents. This does not mean, however, that personal pronouns are unimportant. Japanese has a variety of first- and second-person expressions, and the choice among them can reflect such factors as gender, age, social relationship, degree of intimacy, and level of formality.
Note: Second-person pronouns are used much less frequently in Japanese than you is in English. When speaking directly to someone, Japanese speakers commonly use the person's name or title instead of a second-person pronoun, or omit the reference altogether when it is clear from context. For example, when speaking to a teacher, 田中先生 is normally more appropriate than あなた. Similarly, when speaking to someone whose name is known, スミスさん may be used where English would simply use you. The choice of a second-person pronoun also depends heavily on the relationship between the speakers. きみ and おまえ, in particular, can sound inappropriate or disrespectful when used toward a stranger or someone of higher status. Even あなた, although relatively neutral in dictionaries, is not a general-purpose equivalent of English you and should not automatically be used whenever English requires you. See the Culture Note in Dialogue 1 for more information. |
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Another important function of Vています is to describe a state that results from a completed action or change. With this use, the verb describes a change that has already occurred, and Vています describes the state that exists as a result of that change. For example:
Thus, Vています in this use does not necessarily correspond to English be V-ing. Its English translation depends on the verb and context. With verbs such as けっこんする (to get married) and りこんする (to get divorced), compare the following forms.
Notice the contrast between the event and the resulting state:
The first verb, けっこんしました, refers to an event that occurred ten years ago. The second, りこんしています, describes the person's present state. The same contrast can be seen with やせる (to lose weight) and ふとる (to gain weight).
Other Resultant-State ExpressionsMany other verbs commonly occur in the Vています form to describe a present state.
もつ means to take/hold/come to possess; もっている can describe the resulting state of possession and is commonly translated as have or own.
すむ refers to taking up residence somewhere, while すんでいる normally describes the state of residing there. For this reason, when stating where someone lives, すむ is usually used in the Vています form. However, すむ can occur without ています when referring to the general act or idea of living somewhere:
A Note on もっていますもっています is commonly used to mean have or own something concrete:
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Earlier, we learned that the particle と can be used to combine nouns, as in NとN. However, と cannot be used simply to connect phrases or sentences:
Instead, Japanese commonly uses て-forms to connect two or more related phrases or sentences. Depending on the context, the connection may be translated as and, and then, or in other natural ways in English. The forms used for this purpose are: Negative forms can also be connected with …なくて or …じゃなくて:
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時, pronounced as とき, is a noun meaning “time.” It can be used after a noun or an adjective to indicate the time when a situation or event occurs. In English, this is usually translated as “when ...” or “at the time of ....” Because 時 is a noun, a preceding noun takes の, and a preceding な-adjective takes な, just as before other nouns.
時 vs. 時にThe particle に may follow 時 when 時 indicates the time at which an event occurs:
In many cases, both 時 and 時に are possible. に more explicitly marks 時 as the time of the event. The particle は may also be added for contrast or emphasis:
Here, 時には can suggest a contrast with other situations: when I'm busy (as opposed to when I'm not busy). |
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Japanese family terms vary depending on whose family you are talking about and whom you are speaking to. In general, different terms are used for members of your own family (ingroup) and members of someone else's family (outgroup). Referring to Your Own FamilyWhen referring to members of your own family while speaking to someone outside the family, you normally use the ingroup forms shown below.
For example: 母 my mother, 父 my father, 姉 my older sister, 兄 my older brother, my younger sister 妹, and my younger brother 弟. These terms themselves normally identify the person as a member of the speaker's own family. Therefore, it is unnecessary to add 私の: 母は会社員 です。 My mother is a company employee. rather than: 私の母は会社員です。 Referring to Someone Else's FamilyWhen referring to members of someone else's family, more respectful forms are normally used.
For example: お母さん your mother, お父さん your father, お姉さん your older sister, お兄さん your older brother, your younger sister 妹 さん, and your younger brother 弟さん. For younger family members, their given names or nicknames may also be used. くん is commonly attached to the names of boys and younger males, while ちゃん, an affectionate and familiar form of address, is commonly used for children and people with whom the speaker has a close relationship. Addressing Your Own Family MembersThe terms you use when speaking directly to your own family members are different from the terms you use when talking about them to an outsider. Older family members are commonly addressed with forms such as お母さん、お父さん、お姉さん、お兄さん、おばあさん, and おじいさん. Younger family members are normally addressed by their given names or nicknames, often with ちゃん or くん.
Extended Family TermsThe following diagram summarizes terms for members of an extended family, including grandparents, parents, siblings, spouses, and children.
Spouses and ChildrenThere are several ways to refer to one's spouse. Among the basic terms are:
Describing Family MembersThe following are examples of how you can describe members of your family. Remember that with terms such as 父、母、兄、姉, it is normally unnecessary to say 私の, since the context generally makes it clear that you are referring to your own family.
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Counting PeopleThe counter 人（にん） is used to count people. The words for one person and two people are irregular: 一人（ひとり） and 二人（ふたり）. Beginning with three people, ～人（にん） is normally used.
To say that someone has a certain number of family members, use the following pattern:
Sibling OrderTo indicate someone's order among siblings, ～番目（ばんめ） can be used:
The suffix …目 can also be added to many counters to form an ordinal expression—that is, to indicate the position of something in a sequence:
Describing Siblings
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To state the age of a person, use the counter ～歳（さい）, which means “years old.” It can be used for people of any age.
For young children, the traditional ～つ forms can also be used to indicate age. For example, 三つ can mean “three years old.” These forms are the same ones used to count objects and are generally limited to ages one through ten. Note: “Twenty years old” has the special reading はたち. Although にじゅっさい is understandable, はたち is the standard reading for 二十歳.
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When referring to members of someone else's family (outgroup), more respectful forms are commonly used. One honorific verb introduced here is いらっしゃいます (plain form: いらっしゃる), the honorific equivalent of います（いる） when referring to a person. Compare the forms used for someone else's family with those used for your own family:
Notice that いらっしゃいます is used when respectfully referring to someone else's family member, while います is used when referring to your own family member. Important: When speaking to someone outside your family, do not use honorific verbs to elevate members of your own family.
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When introducing or talking about family members, Japanese speakers distinguish between their own family (ingroup) and someone else's family (outgroup). This distinction affects both the family terms and the expressions used to refer to the person. When referring to someone else's family member, respectful family terms such as お父さん、ご主人、おくさん, and むすめさん are used. When referring to your own family member while speaking to an outsider, use the corresponding ingroup terms such as 父、しゅじん、かない, and むすめ. Compare the following:
うちの + Family TermYou can also use うちの when referring to your own family. うち literally means “home/household,” and うちの + family term is commonly used with the meaning “my/our ....”
Talking About Your Own FamilyThe same ingroup/outgroup distinction applies when talking about family members who are not present.
The question uses the respectful forms お父さん and いらっしゃいます for the listener's father. In the answer, the speaker refers to his or her own father with the ingroup term 父 and the verb います. Be careful not to copy the outgroup form used in the question when answering about your own family:
Introducing Someone Else's Family MemberWhen introducing someone else's family member, こちら can be used as a polite way to refer to the person. One common pattern is: こちらは + Outgroup Family Term + の + Nameさん + です。
Another common pattern is: こちらは + Nameさん + の + Outgroup Family Term + です。
これ vs. こちらWhen introducing people, こちら is a polite expression and is normally used when respectfully presenting someone to another person:
When presenting your own family member to an outsider, however, これ is commonly used:
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The pattern Xは Yが Zです is commonly used to describe a feature, characteristic, or ability associated with X. In English, it may be translated in several ways depending on the context:
For example:
In this section, we will use this pattern mainly to describe physical appearance. First, study the following vocabulary.
Describing Physical FeaturesUse the following pattern: Topic は + Feature が + Description です.
The two descriptions can be combined using the て-form:
More examples:
When the same topic or feature is understood, it does not need to be repeated.
Notice that the Xは Yが Zです pattern is not limited to physical appearance. 日本語がじょうずです, for example, describes an ability associated with Lisa. Connecting Related vs. Contrasting DescriptionsAs we learned earlier, the て-form can connect descriptions that are naturally understood as going together:
When the second description contrasts with the first or goes against what might be expected, けど or が is more appropriate:
Thus, the choice between て and けど／が depends on the relationship the speaker sees between the two descriptions, not simply on whether the adjectives themselves are positive or negative. Connecting Separate SentencesRelated descriptions can also be stated as separate sentences and connected with そして (and) or それに (in addition; furthermore):
Compare this with the combined sentence:
When the descriptions contrast, use けど／が within a sentence or でも to connect separate sentences:
Notice that は may replace が in the contrasting part:
Here, は helps emphasize the contrast with the preceding description. |
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Putting On and Wearing ClothesJapanese uses different verbs for putting on and wearing clothing and accessories, depending on where or how the item is worn.
The basic verb describes the action of putting something on:
Once the item has been put on, Vています describes the resulting state. In English, this is normally expressed with “be wearing.”
Describing What Someone Is WearingUse the following pattern: Person は + Item を + Vています ✅ Notice that もっています can have different meanings depending on the context. The situation usually makes the intended meaning clear.
Taking things off To describe taking off clothing, including shoes and hats, the verb ぬぐ is commonly used. For many accessories or items that are attached to the body, はずす (to remove; detach) is used:
Note: English uses the single expression “put on/wear” for many kinds of clothing and accessories, but Japanese chooses the verb according to how the item is worn. Therefore, it is useful to learn the clothing item together with its verb: コートをきる、くつをはく、ぼうしをかぶる、めがねをかける, etc.
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So far, we have seen that a noun can be modified by another noun or by an adjective:
A noun can also be modified by an entire clause (a sentence-like unit within a larger sentence). This is called a clause modifier. It often corresponds to a relative clause in English. Compare:
Forming a Clause ModifierA clause modifier normally uses the plain form and is placed directly before the noun.
No Relative Pronouns in JapaneseEnglish relative clauses often require words such as who, that, which, whose, or where:
Japanese does not use a relative pronoun. The modifying clause is simply placed directly before the noun:
The Missing ParticleWhen a sentence is changed into a clause modifier, the noun being modified—the head noun—is removed from its original position in the clause. The particle that went with that noun is also removed. For example:
The original その人と disappears from the clause. Japanese does not replace it with a word corresponding to English whom. Similarly:
Adjectives and Nouns in Clause ModifiersA modifying expression does not have to end in a verb. Adjectives and nouns can also occur before the head noun. い-AdjectivesAn い-adjective is placed directly before the noun:
な-AdjectivesWith an affirmative non-past な-adjective, だ changes to な before a noun:
Negative forms are placed directly before the noun:
NounsWith an affirmative non-past noun expression, だ changes to の before the head noun:
が → の inside a Clause ModifierThe subject marker が inside a clause modifier can sometimes be replaced by の:
This が → の substitution can serve as an “early-warning system” for a clause modifier: when you see a pattern such as 私の読んでいる..., you can anticipate that a noun being modified is likely to follow. Using Clause Modifiers in Complete SentencesA modifying clause + noun functions as one noun phrase and can appear wherever a noun phrase normally appears.
Longer Clause Modifiers A modifying clause can contain several elements and can become quite long:
Clause Modifiers and V + のEarlier, we learned the Plain-form V + の structure:
This can also be understood in terms of noun modification. The clause およぐ is followed by の, which functions here as a nominal element:
The clause can be expanded:
は inside a Clause ModifierThe topic marker は is generally avoided for the subject of a modifying clause. If the subject of the original sentence is marked by は, it normally changes to が when that sentence becomes a modifying clause.
Common Beginner Mistake: Adding のA common mistake is to add の between a verb clause and the noun it modifies:
Compare this with:
In the second sentence, の is not a particle connecting 読んでいる to another noun. の itself stands for “one” or “the one.” Compare the structures:
The important rule is simple: A clause modifier is placed directly before the noun it modifies. Do not add の between a verb clause and its head noun.
If you add this unnecessary の, the resulting phrase becomes ungrammatical:
✽ 私が 読んでいる の + 本 [Ungrammatical]. |
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