ぶんぽう (Grammar)

Drop the final る from the dictionary form and add させる.

• 食べる　→　食べさせる
• 見る　　→　見させる

Change the final -u sound of the dictionary form to the corresponding -a sound and add せる. For verbs ending in う, change う to わ and add せる.✅

行く　→　行かせる 持つ　→　持たせる 読む　→　読まれる あそぶ　→　あそばせる 話す　→　話させる

死ぬ　→　死なせる 帰る　→　帰らせる 泳ぐ　→　泳がせる 言う　→　言わせる ✅ 買う　→　買わせる ✅

The two irregular verbs have the following causative forms:

• くる　→　こさせる (written in kanji as 来させる)
• する　→　させる

Original	Causative	Causative (Negative)	Causative (Past/て-form)
ねる 読む 買う する くる	ねさせる 読ませる 買わせる させる こさせる	ねさせない 読ませない 買わせない させない こさせない	ねさせた／ねさせて 読ませた／読ませて 買わせた／買わせて させた／させて こさせた／こさせて

When a transitive verb is used in the causative form, the basic sentence structure is:

Person 1 is the person who causes or allows the action, while Person 2 is the person who actually performs the action. With a transitive verb, the “make” and “let” causatives have the same grammatical structure. Therefore, the intended meaning often cannot be determined without context.

• 部長はスミスさんに新しいプロジェクトの計画を立てさせました。
  The division manager made/let Mr./Ms. Smith make a plan for the new project.
• 山下さんのご両親は山下さんにフランス語を習わせています。
  Mr./Ms. Yamashita’s parents are making/letting Mr./Ms. Yamashita take French lessons.

Thus, に itself does not tell us whether Person 2 is being made to do something or allowed to do it. The context and the relationship between the people involved usually provide the intended interpretation.

Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object. When an intransitive verb is used in the causative form, the person who performs the caused action may be marked by either を or に.

• “Make” causative:
  Person 1 は (or が) + Person 2 を + intransitive V (causative)
• “Let” causative:
  Person 1 は (or が) + Person 2 に + intransitive V (causative)

Compare:

• 部長は大山さんを京都に出張させました。
  The division manager made Mr./Ms. Oyama go to Kyoto on a business trip.
• 部長は大山さんに京都に出張させました。
  The division manager let Mr./Ms. Oyama go to Kyoto on a business trip.

This を = make / に = let distinction is particularly useful when the intransitive verb does not otherwise require を in the sentence.

Some intransitive verbs, however, can already occur with Nを. For example, verbs of movement such as 通(とお) る, 行く, まがる, and さんぽする can use を to mark the place or route through which movement occurs. Similarly, verbs such as 出る (“to leave a place” or “to attend a class, meeting, etc.”), 卒業(そつぎょう) する, and おりる (“to get off a bus, train, elevator, etc.”) can use を to mark a place that one leaves. When such a verb is used in the causative form and を is already used elsewhere in the sentence, the person performing the caused action is normally marked by に. Consequently, the distinction between the “make” and “let” causatives is no longer indicated by を vs. に, and the intended meaning must usually be determined from context.

• 社長は運転手に左の道を行かせました。
  The company president made/let the driver take the road on the left.
• お母さんは太郎ちゃんに午前7時に家を出させました。
  Taro’s mother made/let Taro leave home at 7:00 a.m.

With intransitive verbs describing reactions or behaviors that are not normally understood as actions someone gives another person permission to perform, the causative naturally has a “make/cause” interpretation.

• ミラーさんはクラスのみんなをわらわせるのが好きです。
  Mr./Ms. Miller likes to make everyone in the class laugh.

Here, わらわせる means “make/cause someone to laugh,” rather than “let someone laugh.”

The て-form of a causative verb can be followed by a giving or receiving expression such as あげる, くれる, or もらう. These combinations commonly express the idea of allowing someone to do something as a favor or benefit (i.e., “let-causative” interpretation).

• できるだけ自分の子供にはしたいことをさせてあげたいと思います。
  I want to let my children do what they want to do as much as possible.
• 両親は私にピアノを習わせてくれました。
  My parents let me take piano lessons.

The giving or receiving expression makes it clear that the opportunity to perform the action is viewed as something granted to, or received by, someone.

The causative て-form can also be combined with request expressions such as ～てください, ～てくれませんか, ～てくださいませんか, ～てもらえませんか, and ～ていただけませんか. These patterns are commonly used to ask for permission to do something. They can also be used when volunteering to perform a task.

• ぜひ私にその仕事をさせてください。
  Please let me do that job. (asking for permission / volunteering)
• この辞書を使わせていただけませんか。
  Could you please let me use this dictionary?

In these expressions, the causative is naturally interpreted as “let/allow” because the speaker is requesting permission to perform the action.

First, let us review how to form the ば-form of different types of predicates.

(1) Verbal Predicates — Affirmative

(2) い-Adjectival Predicates — Affirmative

(3) な-Adjectival Predicates — Affirmative

(4) Nominal Predicates — Affirmative

(5) Negative Predicates

The ば-conditional pattern, /Predicate 1 (ば-form) + Predicate 2/, presents Predicate 1 as a condition on which the situation in Predicate 2 depends. It can often be understood as “if Pred-1 is the case, then Pred-2 follows.” Because of this relationship, ～ば is particularly common when the result in Predicate 2 follows logically or naturally from the condition in Predicate 1.

• 明日、天気がよければ、友だちとテニスをします。
  If the weather is good tomorrow, I will play tennis with my friend.
• 予習をしなければ、あの先生の授業(じゅぎょう)は分かりません。
  If you don’t prepare for class, you won’t understand that teacher’s class.
• あのスーパーに行けば、もっと安く買えます。
  If you go to that supermarket, you can buy things more cheaply.

Restrictions on Requests, Invitations, and Intentions

Seeking and Giving Advice

Counterfactual Conditions and Wishes

Counterfactual Past

When Pred-1 is a non-past affirmative な-adjectival or nominal predicate, だ is replaced by な before のに:

• きれいだ → きれいなのに
• 日本人だ → 日本人なのに
• 山田さんは親切(しんせつ)なのに、友だちがいません。
  Although Yamada is kind, they don’t have any friends.
• 田中さんはせんこうがドイツ語なのに、ドイツ語があまり話せません。
  Even though Tanaka’s major is German, they cannot speak German very well.

Because ～のに presents an actual situation that is contrary to what would normally be expected, Pred-2 normally expresses a factual situation. It is therefore generally not used for a command, request, invitation, or similar expression directed at the listener.

• 知らない漢字やことばがあるのに、辞書(じしょ’)を使わないで読んでください。 [Unacceptable]
  Even though there are kanji and words you don’t know, please read it without using a dictionary.

When the second clause expresses a request or command, ～が／けど or another appropriate connective should be used instead.

• 知らない漢字やことばがあるかもしれませんが、辞書を使わないで読んでください。
  There may be some kanji or words you don’t know, but please read it without using a dictionary.

～ようだ can express resemblance to someone or something. With a noun, use /N + のようだ/:

• シュミットさんの家は大きくてりっぱで、ヨーロッパのお城(しろ)のようです。
  Ms. Schmidt’s house is big and magnificent and looks like a European castle.
• 南さんは体(からだ)が大きくてふとっています。すもうとりのようです。
  Minami is big and heavyset. He looks like a sumo wrestler.

～ようだ can also express an inference based on what the speaker sees, hears, or otherwise knows. In this use, it can often be translated as “seems,” “appears,” or “it seems that....”

• あのラーメン屋はいつもこんでいるから、おいしいようです。
  That ramen shop is always crowded, so it seems to be good.
• 今、午前二時ですが、田中さんの部屋は電気(でんき)がついているから、まだ起きているようです。
  It’s 2:00 a.m., but the light is on in Tanaka’s room, so it seems that he is still awake.
  

Compare the equivalent colloquial forms:

• すもうとりみたいです。 ↔ すもうとりのようです。
  He looks like a sumo wrestler.
• まだ起きているみたいです。 ↔ まだ起きているようです。
  It seems that he is still awake.

When よう modifies a noun, use ような. This pattern describes a person or thing as being like X or having the characteristics of X. With a noun: /N のような + Noun/

• グーグルのような会社に就職(しゅうしょく)したいです。
  I want to work for a company like Google.

Compare:

• グーグルみたいな会社に就職したいです。
  I want to work for a company like Google. [more colloquial]

A verb can also occur before ような: /V ような + Noun/

• ひろこさんはハロウィーンのコスプレパーティーに行くような服(ふく)を着ています。
  Hiroko is wearing clothes that look like something she would wear to a Halloween costume party.
  

When an adjective or verb occurs before ような, the meaning is often “a noun that seems/appears to...” or “the kind of noun that....” Thus, compare:

• 大きい店 a large store
• 大きいような店 a store that seems to be large

The two expressions are therefore not necessarily interchangeable.

When よう modifies a predicate rather than a noun, use ように. This pattern describes the manner or way in which an action is performed or a state exists. With a noun: /N + のように + Predicate/

• アメリカに住んだことがないのに、山本さんはアメリカ人のように英語がじょうずです。 Although Yamamoto has never lived in the U.S., she speaks English as well as an American.

Compare the more colloquial form: 山本さんはアメリカ人みたいに英語がじょうずです。 Another example:

• ハーバードやプリンストンのようにいい大学で勉強したいです。
  I want to study at a good university like Harvard or Princeton.

The three forms differ according to the grammatical role of よう:

Form	Function	Example
Nのようだ	ends the predicate	お城(しろ)のようだ — looks like a castle
Nのような + N	modifies a noun	お城のような家 — a house like a castle
Nのように + Pred	modifies a predicate	鳥(とり)のようにとぶ — fly like a bird

The same basic contrast can be seen with みたい:

• Nみたいだ ↔ Nのようだ
• Nみたいな + N ↔ Nのような + N
• Nみたいに + Pred ↔ Nのように + Pred

The みたい forms are more conversational, while the よう forms are stylistically more neutral and can be used in a wider range of situations.